02:22 - To open the conversation, Jeffrey defined GMOs as genetically modified organisms created through unnatural methods, designed to introduce specific traits into plants, animals, or even humans.

If you’d like to go beyond this episode and learn more about the origins and impacts of GMOs, explore Jeffrey’s organization, the Institute for Responsible Technology, as well as the Non-GMO Project—both offer a range of accessible resources on genetically modified crops.

05:30 - Jeffrey highlighted that once a genetically modified crop is released into the environment, it can self-replicate and contaminate the gene pool permanently. Research on GMOs supports this concern, showing that genes from GM crops can transfer to, and persist in, wild or weedy relatives through cross-pollination, becoming a lasting part of the ecosystem through a process known as “gene-flow” (source.

• The GM Contamination Register documents numerous real-world cases where genes from GM crops have spread into nearby conventional or wild plants, demonstrating how difficult GMO’s can be to manage once contamination occurs (source.
• One specific example of the negative impact of gene-flow occurred in 2006 when U.S. Agriculture Secretary Mike Johanns announced that commercial long-grain rice supplies had been contaminated with an unapproved genetically engineered variety (source)—prompting Japan and the European Union to restrict U.S. rice imports and resulting in a $290k settlement from Bayer to Texas rice growers for damages (source.

05:40 - Jeffrey discussed the timeline of glyphosate and the development of GMO crops, and how they are intricately linked. Below is Monsanto's patent history for both glyphosate & genetically modified (GM) seeds:

• 1950s: Glyphosate was synthesized by Swiss chemist Henri Martin.
• 1964: First patent granted for glyphosate as a descaler to be used as a boiler and pipe cleaner (U.S. Patent 3,160,632).
• 1974: Monsanto patented glyphosate for agricultural weed control (U.S. Patent 3,799,758) and introduced it to markets as the active ingredient in Roundup® that same year.
• 1997: Monsanto was granted a patent for creating glyphosate-resistant crops—what we now call genetically modified plants—allowing them to survive glyphosate application (U.S. Patent No. 5,633,435).
• 2000: A separate patent was granted specifically for glyphosate-resistant GM corn (U.S. Patent No. 6,040,497).
• 2010: Monsanto was granted a patent covering glyphosate’s use as an antimicrobial or antibiotic agent (U.S. Patent 7,771,736 B2).