Despite being dismissed by many European courts as the backward "Muscovite Darkness," Russia under Tsar Christen Vasa harbored deep resentment against the Polish-Swedish Union for the humiliations of the previous century. Determined to break the Union’s stranglehold on the Baltic Sea and secure a maritime gateway for his empire, the Tsar sought alliances across the continent. While traditional powers like France, Prussia, and Eastern Rome declined involvement, and England offered only financial backing to stir chaos, Russia secured a partnership with Denmark, which sought retribution against Sweden. In 1702, this coalition launched the Great Northern War, invading the eastern marches of the Commonwealth and Swedish territories in Germany, igniting a conflict intended to upend the balance of power in Eastern Europe.

The early years of the war were marked by brutal attrition and Russian setbacks, as the Tsar's forces suffered humiliating defeats at Narva and Ingria due to poor coordination and the superior discipline of Swedish forces. The conflict widened when the Habsburg monarchy intervened on the side of the Polish-Swedish Union, further complicating the strategic landscape. However, the Union was plagued by internal dysfunction and a severe breakdown in communication between Polish and Swedish commanders. This disjointed leadership culminated in the catastrophic Battle of Pskov in 1708. In freezing winter conditions, a Swedish army attempting a decisive strike was left unsupported by its Polish allies and was subsequently annihilated by a reorganized Russian force utilizing Cossack cavalry and overwhelming numbers.

The destruction of the Swedish army at Pskov marked the turning point of the conflict, shifting the momentum firmly in Russia’s favor. Although the war dragged on for several more years, the Union could not recover from its losses, leading to the Treaty of Wolmar in 1712. The treaty ceded Estonia, Ingria, and Karelia to Russia, effectively breaking the Swedish dominion over the Baltic and establishing Russia as a premier European power. Following this victory, Russia turned its gaze eastward, spending the remainder of the 18th century relentlessly conquering Siberia and Central Asian khanates, eventually reaching the Pacific coast by 1779.

Russia’s expansion did not stop at the Pacific shoreline; in the 1780s, expeditions crossed the ocean to establish colonies in "Ledyanoy Kray," a rugged, icy land rich in furs. These efforts proved lucrative, leading to the establishment of multiple settlements. However, as Russian explorers pushed further south in 1797, they encountered a Ming Chinese fleet operating out of the Chinese colony of Heshi. The realization that a powerful China had established a foothold in the New World shocked Moscow. Faced with the potential threat of a conflict on their far eastern flank, the Russian court adopted a policy of conciliation, determining that peace with the Chinese empire was essential to maintain the security of their burgeoning global presence.