This page contains outdated research and approaches that were explored and superseded. Kept for reference only. Do not use as current design guidance.
| Approach | Reason Abandoned |
|---|---|
| McKibben hydraulic muscles | Pump bulk, noise, complexity, fluid leakage risk |
| Dielectric elastomer (DEA) | kV-range voltage, millinewton-scale force, safety concerns |
| Electrohydraulic McKibben | Still requires high voltage (3–8 kV), complex electronics |
| Pneumatic actuation | Compressor noise/bulk, not DIY-friendly at this scale |
Current approach: TCP nylon+nichrome co-insert fibers. See active pages.
Replicates McKibben muscle behavior using electrostatic force instead of a pump. Flexible tube filled with mineral oil, constrained by braided mesh, activated via high voltage electrodes.
Requires 3–8 kV. Complicates ESP32 control chain significantly. Force output unpredictable at DIY scale.